ASSIGNMENT 3

Translation Procedures

Translation is a process transferring written or spoken source language texts into written or spoken target language textsso it can be easily understood by the readers. There are two types of translation procedures based on Nida (1964):

1.      Technical procedures. There are some steps in translating a text technically. First, a translator needs to analyze the source and target languages, then the translator take a through study of the source language text before translating it, and the last step is making judgments of the semantic and syntactic approximations.

2.        Organizational procedures. There are some steps in translating a text using organizational procedures. The first step is reevaluating the result, second step is contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text done by other translators. Next step is checking the text's communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness, also the translator needs to study their reactions.

Graedler (2000:3) stated some procedures of translating culture-specific concepts, as follows:

1.      Making up a new word.

2.      Explaining the meaning of the source language expression in order to translate it.

3.      Keeping the source language terms completely.

4.      Selecting for a word in the target language which seems similar to or has the same meaning and use in the source language term.

Harvey (2000:2-6) divided four major techniques for translating culture-bound terms:

1.      Functional Equivalence. It means using a referent in the target language culture whose function is similar to that of the source language referent.

2.      Formal Equivalence (linguistic equivalence). It means a 'word-for-word' translation.

3.      Transcription (borrowing). It means taking a word or phrase directly from the source language.

4.      Descriptive or self-explanatory translation. It means replacing  a term or expression with a description of its form or function. It can be helpful to add the original source language term to avoid ambiguity.

The following are the different translation procedures based on Newmark (1988b):

1.      Transference. It is the process of transferring an source language word to a target language text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription."

2.      Naturalization. It adapts the source language word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the target language. (Newmark, 1988b:82)

3.      Cultural equivalent. It means replacing a cultural word in the source language with a target language one. However, "they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988b:83)

4.      Functional equivalent. It requires the use of a culture-neutral word. (Newmark, 1988b:83)

5.      Descriptive equivalent. In this procedure the meaning of the culture-bound terms is explained in several words. (Newmark, 1988b:83)

6.      Componential analysis. It means "comparing an source language word with a target language word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components." (Newmark, 1988b:114)

7.      Synonymy. It is a "near target language equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy. (Newmark, 1988b:84)

8.      Through-translation. It is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark, 1988b:84)

9.      Shifts or transpositions. It involves a change in the grammar from source language to target language, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific source language structure does not exist in the target language, (iii) change of an source language verb to a target language word, change of an source language noun group to a target language noun and so forth. (Newmark, 1988b:86)

10.  Modulation. It occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the target language text in conformity with the current norms of the target language, since the source language and the target language may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective. (Newmark, 1988b:88)

11.  Recognized translation. It occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89)

12.  Compensation. It occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part. (Newmark, 1988b:90)

13.  Paraphrase. In this procedure the meaning of the culture-bound term is explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

14.  Couplets. It occurs when the translator combines two different procedures. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

15.  Notes. Notes are additional information in a translation. (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Notes can appear in the form of 'footnotes.' Nida (1964:237-39) states the use of footnotes to fulfill at least the two following functions. First, to provide supplementary information, and second, to call attention to the original's discrepancies.